# Introduction¶

## 1 Review¶

Course: Math 535 - Mathematical Methods in Data Science (MMiDS)
Author: Sebastien Roch, Department of Mathematics, University of Wisconsin-Madison
Updated: Sep 21, 2020

### 1.1 Vectors and norms¶

For a vector

$$\mathbf{x} = \begin{bmatrix} x_1 \\ x_2 \\ \vdots \\ x_d \end{bmatrix} \in \mathbb{R}^d$$

the Euclidean norm of $\mathbf{x}$ is defined as

$$\|\mathbf{x}\|_2 = \sqrt{ \sum_{i=1}^d x_i^2 } = \sqrt{\mathbf{x}^T \mathbf{x}} = \sqrt{\langle \mathbf{x}, \mathbf{x}\rangle}$$

where $\mathbf{x}^T$ denotes the transpose of $\mathbf{x}$ (seen as a single-column matrix) and

$$\langle \mathbf{u}, \mathbf{v} \rangle = \sum_{i=1}^d u_i v_i$$

is the inner product of $\mathbf{u}$ and $\mathbf{v}$. This is also known as the $2$-norm.

More generally, for $p \geq 1$, the $p$-norm of $\mathbf{x}$ is given by

$$\|\mathbf{x}\|_p = \left( \sum_{i=1}^d |x_i|^p \right)^{1/p}.$$

Here is a nice visualization of the unit ball, that is, the set $\{\mathbf{x}:\|x\|_p \leq 1\}$, under varying $p$.

There exist many more norms. Formally:

Definition (Norm): A norm is a function $\ell$ from $\mathbb{R}^d$ to $\mathbb{R}_+$ that satisfies for all $a \in \mathbb{R}$, $\mathbf{u}, \mathbf{v} \in \mathbb{R}^d$

• (Homogeneity): $\ell(a \mathbf{u}) = |a| \ell(\mathbf{u})$
• (Triangle inequality): $\ell(\mathbf{u}+\mathbf{v}) \leq \ell(\mathbf{u}) + \ell(\mathbf{v})$
• (Point-separating): $\ell(u) = 0$ implies $\mathbf{u} =0$.

$\lhd$

The Euclidean distance between two vectors $\mathbf{u}$ and $\mathbf{v}$ in $\mathbb{R}^d$ is the $2$-norm of their difference

$$d(\mathbf{u},\mathbf{v}) = \|\mathbf{u} - \mathbf{v}\|_2.$$

Throughout we use the notation $\|\mathbf{x}\| = \|\mathbf{x}\|_2$ to indicate the $2$-norm of $\mathbf{x}$ unless specified otherwise.

We will often work with collections of $n$ vectors $\mathbf{x}_1, \ldots, \mathbf{x}_n$ in $\mathbb{R}^d$ and it will be convenient to stack them up into a matrix

$$X = \begin{bmatrix} \mathbf{x}_1^T \\ \mathbf{x}_2^T \\ \vdots \\ \mathbf{x}_n^T \\ \end{bmatrix} = \begin{bmatrix} x_{11} & x_{12} & \cdots & x_{1d} \\ x_{21} & x_{22} & \cdots & x_{2d} \\ \vdots & \vdots & \ddots & \vdots \\ x_{n1} & x_{n2} & \cdots & x_{nd} \\ \end{bmatrix},$$

where $^T$ indicates the transpose:

(Source)

NUMERICAL CORNER In Julia, a vector can be obtained in different ways. The following method gives a row vector as a two-dimensional array.

In [2]:
t = [1. 3. 5.]

Out[2]:
1×3 Array{Float64,2}:
1.0  3.0  5.0

To construct a one-dimensional array directly, use commas to separate the entries.

In [4]:
u = [1., 3., 5., 7.]

Out[4]:
4-element Array{Float64,1}:
1.0
3.0
5.0
7.0

To obtain the norm of a vector, we can use the function norm (which requires the LinearAlgebra package):

In [5]:
norm(u)

Out[5]:
9.16515138991168

which we can check "by hand"

In [6]:
sqrt(sum(u.^2))

Out[6]:
9.16515138991168

The . above is called broadcasting. It applies the operator following it (in this case taking a square) element-wise.

To create a matrix out of two vectors, we use the function hcat and transpose.

In [8]:
u = [1., 3., 5., 7.];
v = [2., 4., 6., 8.];
X = hcat(u,v)'

Out[8]:
2×4 Adjoint{Float64,Array{Float64,2}}:
1.0  3.0  5.0  7.0
2.0  4.0  6.0  8.0

With more than two vectors, we can use the reduce function.

In [9]:
u = [1., 3., 5., 7.];
v = [2., 4., 6., 8.];
w = [9., 8., 7., 6.];
X = reduce(hcat, [u, v, w])'

Out[9]:
3×4 Adjoint{Float64,Array{Float64,2}}:
1.0  3.0  5.0  7.0
2.0  4.0  6.0  8.0
9.0  8.0  7.0  6.0

### 1.2 Multivariable calculus¶

#### 1.2.1 Limits and continuity¶

Throughout this section, we use the Euclidean norm $\|\mathbf{x}\| = \sqrt{\sum_{i=1}^d x_i^2}$ for $\mathbf{x} = (x_1,\ldots, x_d)^T \in \mathbb{R}^d$.

The open $r$-ball around $\mathbf{x} \in \mathbb{R}^d$ is the set of points within Euclidean distance $r$ of $\mathbf{x}$, that is,

$$B_r(\mathbf{x}) = \{\mathbf{y} \in \mathbb{R}^d \,:\, \|\mathbf{y} - \mathbf{x}\| < r\}.$$

A point $\mathbf{x} \in \mathbb{R}^d$ is a limit point (or accumulation point) of a set $A \subseteq \mathbb{R}^d$ if every open ball around $\mathbf{x}$ contains an element $\mathbf{a}$ of $A$ such that $\mathbf{a} \neq \mathbf{x}$. A set $A$ is closed if every limit point of $A$ belongs to $A$.

(Source)

A point $\mathbf{x} \in \mathbb{R}^d$ is an interior point of a set $A \subseteq \mathbb{R}^d$ if there exists an $r > 0$ such that $B_r(\mathbf{x}) \subseteq A$. A set $A$ is open if it consists entirely of interior points.

(Source)

A set $A \subseteq \mathbb{R}^d$ is bounded if there exists an $r > 0$ such that $A \subseteq B_r(\mathbf{0})$, where $\mathbf{0} = (0,\ldots,0)^T$.

Definition (Limits of a Function): Let $f: D \to \mathbb{R}$ be a real-valued function on $D \subseteq \mathbb{R}^d$. Then $f$ is said to have a limit $L \in \mathbb{R}$ as $\mathbf{x}$ approaches $\mathbf{a}$ if: for any $\epsilon > 0$, there exists a $\delta > 0$ such that $|f(\mathbf{x}) - L| < \epsilon$ for all $\mathbf{x} \in D \cap B_\delta(\mathbf{a})\setminus \{\mathbf{a}\}$. This is written as

$$\lim_{\mathbf{x} \to \mathbf{a}} f(\mathbf{x}) = L.$$

$\lhd$

Definition (Continuous Function): Let $f: D \to \mathbb{R}$ be a real-valued function on $D \subseteq \mathbb{R}^d$. Then $f$ is said to be continuous at $\mathbf{a} \in D$ if

$$\lim_{\mathbf{x} \to \mathbf{a}} f(\mathbf{x}) = f(\mathbf{a}).$$

$\lhd$

(Source)

We will not prove the following fundamental analysis result, which will be useful below. See e.g. Wikipedia. Suppose $f : D \to \mathbb{R}$ is defined on a set $D \subseteq \mathbb{R}^d$. We say that $f$ attains a maximum value $M$ at $\mathbf{z}^*$ if $f(\mathbf{z}^*) = M$ and $M \geq f(\mathbf{x})$ for all $\mathbf{x} \in D$. Similarly, we say $f$ attains a minimum value $m$ at $\mathbf{z}_*$ if $f(\mathbf{z}_*) = m$ and $m \geq f(\mathbf{x})$ for all $\mathbf{x} \in D$.

Theorem (Extreme Value): Let $f : D \to \mathbb{R}$ be a real-valued, continuous function on a nonempty, closed, bounded set $D\subseteq \mathbb{R}^d$. Then $f$ attains a maximum and a minimum on $D$.

#### 1.2.2 Derivatives¶

We begin by reviewing the single-variable case. Recall that the derivative of a function of a real variable is the rate of change of the function with respect to the change in the variable. Formally:

Definition (Derivative): Let $f : D \to \mathbb{R}$ where $D \subseteq \mathbb{R}$ and let $x_0 \in D$ be an interior point of $D$. The derivative of $f$ at $x_0$ is

$$f'(x_0) = \frac{\mathrm{d} f (x_0)}{\mathrm{d} x} = \lim_{h \to 0} \frac{f(x_0 + h) - f(x_0)}{h}$$

provided the limit exists. $\lhd$

(Source)

The following lemma encapsulates a key insight about the derivative of $f$ at $x_0$: it tells us where to find smaller values.

Lemma (Descent Direction): Let $f : D \to \mathbb{R}$ with $D \subseteq \mathbb{R}$ and let $x_0 \in D$ be an interior point of $D$ where $f'(x_0)$ exists. If $f'(x_0) > 0$, then there is an open ball $B_\delta(x_0) \subseteq D$ around $x_0$ such that for each $x$ in $B_\delta(x_0)$:

(a) $f(x) > f(x_0)$ if $x > x_0$, (b) $f(x) < f(x_0)$ if $x < x_0$.

If instead $f'(x_0) < 0$, the opposite holds.

Proof idea: Follows from the definition of the derivative by taking $\epsilon$ small enough that $f'(x_0) - \epsilon > 0$.

Proof: Take $\epsilon = f'(x_0)/2$. By definition of the derivative, there is $\delta > 0$ such that

$$f'(x_0) - \frac{f(x_0 + h) - f(x_0)}{h} < \epsilon$$

for all $0 < h < \delta$. Rearranging gives

$$f(x_0 + h) > f(x_0) + [f'(x_0) - \epsilon] h > f(x_0)$$

by our choice of $\epsilon$. The other direction is similar. $\square$

For functions of several variables, we have the following generalization. As before, we let $\mathbf{e}_i \in \mathbb{R}^d$ be the $i$-th standard basis vector.

Definition (Partial Derivative): Let $f : D \to \mathbb{R}$ where $D \subseteq \mathbb{R}^d$ and let $\mathbf{x}_0 \in D$ be an interior point of $D$. The partial derivative of $f$ at $\mathbf{x}_0$ with respect to $x_i$ is

$$\frac{\partial f (\mathbf{x}_0)}{\partial x_i} = \lim_{h \to 0} \frac{f(\mathbf{x}_0 + h \mathbf{e}_i) - f(\mathbf{x}_0)}{h}$$

provided the limit exists. If $\frac{\partial f (\mathbf{x}_0)}{\partial x_i}$ exists and is continuous in an open ball around $\mathbf{x}_0$ for all $i$, then we say that $f$ continuously differentiable at $\mathbf{x}_0$. $\lhd$

Definition (Jacobian): Let $\mathbf{f} = (f_1, \ldots, f_m) : D \to \mathbb{R}^m$ where $D \subseteq \mathbb{R}^d$ and let $\mathbf{x}_0 \in D$ be an interior point of $D$ where $\frac{\partial f_j (\mathbf{x}_0)}{\partial x_i}$ exists for all $i, j$. The Jacobian of $\mathbf{f}$ at $\mathbf{x}_0$ is the $d \times m$ matrix

$$\mathbf{J}_{\mathbf{f}}(\mathbf{x}_0) = \begin{pmatrix} \frac{\partial f_1 (\mathbf{x}_0)}{\partial x_1} & \ldots & \frac{\partial f_1 (\mathbf{x}_0)}{\partial x_d}\\ \vdots & \ddots & \vdots\\ \frac{\partial f_m (\mathbf{x}_0)}{\partial x_1} & \ldots & \frac{\partial f_m (\mathbf{x}_0)}{\partial x_d} \end{pmatrix}.$$

For a real-valued function $f : D \to \mathbb{R}$, the Jacobian reduces to the row vector

$$\mathbf{J}_{f}(\mathbf{x}_0) = \nabla f(\mathbf{x}_0)^T$$

where the vector

$$\nabla f(\mathbf{x}_0) = \left(\frac{\partial f (\mathbf{x}_0)}{\partial x_1}, \ldots, \frac{\partial f (\mathbf{x}_0)}{\partial x_d}\right)^T$$

is the gradient of $f$ at $\mathbf{x}_0$. $\lhd$

Example: Consider the affine function

$$f(\mathbf{x}) = \mathbf{q}^T \mathbf{x} + r$$

where $\mathbf{x} = (x_1, \ldots, x_d)^T, \mathbf{q} = (q_1, \ldots, q_d)^T \in \mathbb{R}^d$. The partial derivatives of the linear term are given by

$$\frac{\partial}{\partial x_i} [\mathbf{q}^T \mathbf{x}] = \frac{\partial}{\partial x_i} \left[\sum_{j=1}^d q_j x_j \right] = q_i.$$

So the gradient of $f$ is

$$\nabla f(\mathbf{x}) = \mathbf{q}.$$

$\lhd$

$$f(\mathbf{x}) = \frac{1}{2} \mathbf{x}^T P \mathbf{x} + \mathbf{q}^T \mathbf{x} + r.$$

where $\mathbf{x} = (x_1, \ldots, x_d)^T, \mathbf{q} = (q_1, \ldots, q_d)^T \in \mathbb{R}^d$ and $P \in \mathbb{R}^{d \times d}$. The partial derivatives of the quadratic term are given by

\begin{align*} \frac{\partial}{\partial x_i} [\mathbf{x}^T P \mathbf{x}] &= \frac{\partial}{\partial x_i} \left[\sum_{j, k=1}^d P_{jk} x_j x_k \right]\\ &= \frac{\partial}{\partial x_i} \left[P_{ii} x_i^2 + \sum_{j=1, j\neq i}^d P_{ji} x_j x_i + \sum_{k=1, k\neq i}^d P_{ik} x_i x_k \right]\\ &= 2 P_{ii} x_i + \sum_{j=1, j\neq i}^d P_{ji} x_j + \sum_{k=1, k\neq i}^d P_{ik} x_k\\ &= \sum_{j=1}^d [P^T]_{ij} x_j + \sum_{k=1}^d [P]_{ik} x_k. \end{align*}

So the gradient of $f$ is

$$\nabla f(\mathbf{x}) = \frac{1}{2}[P + P^T] \,\mathbf{x} + \mathbf{q}.$$

$\lhd$

#### 1.2.3 Optimization¶

Optimization problems play an important role in data science. Here we look at unconstrained optimization problems of the form:

$$\min_{\mathbf{x} \in \mathbb{R}^d} f(\mathbf{x})$$

where $f : \mathbb{R}^d \to \mathbb{R}$. Ideally, we would like to find a global minimizer to the optimization problem above.

Definition (Global Minimizer): Let $f : \mathbb{R}^d \to \mathbb{R}$. The point $\mathbf{x}^* \in \mathbb{R}^d$ is a global minimizer of $f$ over $\mathbb{R}^d$ if

$$f(\mathbf{x}) \geq f(\mathbf{x}^*), \quad \forall \mathbf{x} \in \mathbb{R}^d.$$

$\lhd$

Example: The function $f(x) = x^2$ over $\mathbb{R}$ has a global minimizer at $x^* = 0$. Indeed, we clearly have $f(x) \geq 0$ for all $x$ while $f(0) = 0$.

In [10]:
f(x) = x^2
x = LinRange(-2,2,100)
y = f.(x)
plot(x, y, lw=2, legend=false)

Out[10]:

The function $f(x) = e^x$ over $\mathbb{R}$ does not have a global minimizer. Indeed, $f(x) > 0$ but no $x$ achieves $0$. And, for any $m > 0$, there is $x$ small enough such that $f(x) < m$.

In [11]:
f(x) = exp(x)
x = LinRange(-2,2, 100)
y = f.(x)
plot(x, y, lw=2, legend=false, ylim = (0,5))

Out[11]:

The function $f(x) = (x+1)^2 (x-1)^2$ over $\mathbb{R}$ has two global minimizers at $x^* = -1$ and $x^{**} = 1$. Indeed, $f(x) \geq 0$ and $f(x) = 0$ if and only $x = x^*$ or $x = x^{**}$.

In [12]:
f(x) = (x+1)^2*(x-1)^2
x = LinRange(-2,2, 100)
y = f.(x)
plot(x, y, lw=2, legend=false, ylim = (0,5))

Out[12]:

In general, finding a global minimizer and certifying that one has been found can be difficult unless some special structure is present. Therefore weaker notions of solution have been introduced.

Definition (Local Minimizer): Let $f : \mathbb{R}^d \to \mathbb{R}$. The point $\mathbf{x}^* \in \mathbb{R}^d$ is a local minimizer of $f$ over $\mathbb{R}^d$ if there is $\delta > 0$ such that

$$f(\mathbf{x}) \geq f(\mathbf{x}^*), \quad \forall \mathbf{x} \in B_{\delta}(\mathbf{x}^*) \setminus \{\mathbf{x}^*\}.$$

If the inequality is strict, we say that $\mathbf{x}^*$ is a strict local minimizer. $\lhd$

In words, $\mathbf{x}^*$ is a local minimizer if there is open ball around $\mathbf{x}^*$ where it attains the minimum value. The difference between global and local minimizers is illustrated in the next figure.

(Source)

Local minimizers can be characterized in terms of the gradient, at least in terms of a necessary condition. We will prove this result later in the course.

Theorem (First-Order Necessary Condition): Let $f : \mathbb{R}^d \to \mathbb{R}$ be continuously differentiable on $\mathbb{R}^d$. If $\mathbf{x}_0$ is a local minimizer, then $\nabla f(\mathbf{x}_0) = 0$.

### 1.3 Probability¶

Recall that the expectation (or mean) of a function $h$ of a discrete random variable $X$ taking values in $\mathcal{X}$ is given by

$$\mathbb{E}[h(X)] = \sum_{x \in \mathcal{X}} h(x)\,p_X(x)$$

where $p_X(x) = \mathbb{P}[X = x]$ is the probability mass function (PMF) of $X$. In the continuous case, we have

$$\mathbb{E}[h(X)] = \int h(x) f_X(x)\,\mathrm{d}x$$

if $f_X$ is the probability density function (PDF) of $X$.

Two key properties of the expectation:

• linearity, that is,
$$\mathbb{E}[\alpha h(X) + \beta] = \alpha \,\mathbb{E}[h(X)] + \beta$$
• monotonicity, that is, if $h_1(x) \leq h_2(x)$ for all $x$ then
$$\mathbb{E}[h_1(X)] \leq \mathbb{E}[h_2(X)].$$

The variance of a real-valued random variable $X$ is

$$\mathrm{Var}[X] = \mathbb{E}[(X - \mathbb{E}[X])^2]$$

and its standard deviation is $\sigma_X = \sqrt{\mathrm{Var}[X]}$. The variance does not satisfy linearity, but we have the following property

$$\mathrm{Var}[\alpha X + \beta] = \alpha^2 \,\mathrm{Var}[X].$$

The variance is a measure of the typical deviation of $X$ around its mean. A quantified version of this statement is given by Chebyshev's inequality.

Lemma (Chebyshev) For a random variable $X$ with finite variance, we have for any $\alpha > 0$

$$\mathbb{P}[|X - \mathbb{E}[X]| \geq \alpha] \leq \frac{\mathrm{Var}[X]}{\alpha^2}.$$

The intuition is the following: if the expected squared deviation from the mean is small, then the deviation from the mean is unlikely to be large.

To formalize this we prove a more general inequality, Makov's inequality. In words, if a non-negative random variable has a small expectation then it is unlikely to be large.

Lemma (Markov) Let $Z$ be a non-negative random variable with finite expectation. Then, for any $\beta > 0$,

$$\mathbb{P}[Z \geq \beta] \leq \frac{\mathbb{E}[Z]}{\beta}.$$

Proof idea: The quantity $\beta \,\mathbb{P}[Z \geq \beta]$ is a lower bound on the expectation of $Z$ restricted to the range $\{Z\geq \beta\}$, which by non-negativity is itself lower bounded by $\mathbb{E}[Z]$.

Proof: Formally, let $\mathbf{1}_A$ be the indicator of the event $A$, that is, it is the random variable that is $1$ when $A$ occurs and $0$ otherwise. By definition, the expectation of $\mathbf{1}_A$ is

$$\mathbb{E}[A] = 0\,\mathbb{P}[\mathbf{1}_A = 0] + 1\,\mathbb{P}[\mathbf{1}_A = 1] = \mathbb{P}[A]$$

where $A^c$ is the complement of $A$. Hence, by linearity and monotonicity,

$$\beta \,\mathbb{P}[Z \geq \beta] = \beta \,\mathbb{E}[\mathbf{1}_{Z \geq \beta}] = \mathbb{E}[\beta \mathbf{1}_{Z \geq \beta}] \leq \mathbb{E}[Z].$$

Rearranging gives the claim. $\square$

Proof idea (Chebyshev): Simply apply Markov to the squared deviation of $X$ from its mean.

Proof (Chebyshev): Let $Z = (X - \mathbb{E}[X])^2$, which is non-negative by definition. Hence, by Markov, for any $\beta = \alpha^2 > 0$

\begin{align} \mathbb{P}[|X - \mathbb{E}[X]| \geq \alpha] &= \mathbb{P}[(X - \mathbb{E}[X])^2 \geq \alpha^2]\\ &= \mathbb{P}[Z \geq \beta]\\ &\leq \frac{\mathbb{E}[Z]}{\beta}\\ &= \frac{\mathrm{Var}[X]}{\alpha^2} \end{align}

where we used the definition of the variance in the last equality.$\square$

Chebyshev's inequality is particularly useful when combined with independence.

Recall that discrete random variables $X$ and $Y$ are independent if their joint PMF factorizes, that is

$$p_{X,Y}(x,y) = p_X(x) \,p_Y(y), \qquad \forall x, y$$

where $p_{X,Y}(x,y) = \mathbb{P}[X=x, Y=y]$. Similarly, continuous random variables $X$ and $Y$ are independent if their joint PDF factorizes. One consequence is that expectations of products of single-variable functions factorize as well, that is, for functions $g$ and $h$ we have

$$\mathbb{E}[g(X) h(Y)] = \mathbb{E}[g(X)] \,\mathbb{E}[h(Y)].$$

The latter has the following important implication for the variance. If $X_1, \ldots, X_n$ are independent, real-valued random variables, then

$$\mathrm{Var}[X_1 + \cdots + X_n] = \mathrm{Var}[X_1] + \cdots + \mathrm{Var}[X_n].$$

Notice that, unlike the case of the expectation, this equation for the variance requires independence in general.

Applied to the sample mean of $n$ independent, identically distributed (i.i.d.) random variables $X_1,\ldots,X_n$, we obtain

\begin{align} \mathrm{Var} \left[\frac{1}{n} \sum_{i=1}^n X_i\right] &= \frac{1}{n^2} \sum_{i=1}^n \mathrm{Var}[X_i]\\ &= \frac{1}{n^2} n \,\mathrm{Var}[X_1]\\ &= \frac{\mathrm{Var}[X_1]}{n}. \end{align}

So the variance of the sample mean decreases as $n$ gets large, while its expectation remains the same by linearity

\begin{align} \mathbb{E} \left[\frac{1}{n} \sum_{i=1}^n X_i\right] &= \frac{1}{n} \sum_{i=1}^n \mathbb{E}[X_i]\\ &= \frac{1}{n} n \,\mathbb{E}[X_1]\\ &= \mathbb{E}[X_1]. \end{align}

Together with Chebyshev's inequality, we immediately get that the sample mean approaches its expectation in the following probabilistic sense.

Theorem (Law of Large Numbers) Let $X_1, \ldots, X_n$ be i.i.d. For any $\varepsilon > 0$, as $n \to +\infty$,

$$\mathbb{P}\left[\left|\frac{1}{n} \sum_{i=1}^n X_i - \mathbb{E}[X_1]\right| \geq \varepsilon\right] \to 0.$$

Proof: By Chebyshev and the formulas above,

\begin{align} \mathbb{P}\left[\left|\frac{1}{n} \sum_{i=1}^n X_i - \mathbb{E}[X_1]\right| \geq \varepsilon\right] &= \mathbb{P}\left[\left|\frac{1}{n} \sum_{i=1}^n X_i - \mathbb{E} \left[\frac{1}{n} \sum_{i=1}^n X_i\right]\right| \geq \varepsilon\right]\\ &\leq \frac{\mathrm{Var}\left[\frac{1}{n} \sum_{i=1}^n X_i\right]}{\varepsilon^2}\\ &= \frac{\mathrm{Var}[X_1]}{n \varepsilon^2}\\ &\to 0 \end{align}

as $n \to +\infty$. $\square$

NUMERICAL CORNER We can use simulations to confirm the Law of Large Numbers. Recall that a uniform random variable over the interval $[a,b]$ has density

$$f_{X}(x) = \begin{cases} \frac{1}{b-a} & x \in [a,b] \\ 0 & \text{o.w.} \end{cases}$$

We write $X \sim \mathrm{U}[a,b]$. We can obtain a sample from $\mathrm{U}[0,1]$ by using the function rand in Julia.

In [13]:
rand(1)

Out[13]:
1-element Array{Float64,1}:
0.6833180625581647

Now we take $n$ samples from $\mathrm{U}[0,1]$ and compute their sample mean. We repeat $k$ times and display the empirical distribution of the sample means using an histogram.

In [14]:
function lln_unif(n, k)
sample_mean = [mean(rand(n)) for i=1:k]
histogram(sample_mean,
legend=false, title="n=$n", xlims=(0,1), nbin=15) # "$n" is string with value n
end

Out[14]:
lln_unif (generic function with 1 method)
In [15]:
lln_unif(10, 1000)

Out[15]:

Taking $n$ much larger leads to more concentration around the mean.

In [16]:
lln_unif(100, 1000)

Out[16]: